Non-Sigma Men and the Fragile Self: Autofictional Narratives of Masculinity in Dazai and Barnes
Personal Information:-
Name:- Dhatri Parmar
Batch:- M.A. Sem 4 (2023-2025)
Enrollment Number:- 5108230032
E-mail Address:-dhatriparmar291@gmail.com
Roll Number:- 6
Assignment Details:-
Topic:- Non-Sigma Men and the Fragile Self: Autofictional Narratives of Masculinity in Dazai and Barnes
Paper & subject code:- Paper 207: Contemporary Literatures in English
Submitted to:- Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, MKBU, Bhavnagar
Abstract :
This paper explores the concept of non-sigma masculinity through the lens of autofiction in Julian Barnes’s The Only Story and Osamu Dazai’s No Longer Human. Moving beyond traditional representations of the dominant, stoic “sigma male,” the study highlights how both protagonists Paul Roberts and Yozo Oba embody emotional vulnerability, self-doubt, and a deep crisis of identity. Drawing on the frameworks of Judith Butler’s performativity and bell hooks’ ideas of emotional repression in patriarchal masculinity, the paper examines how these novels blur the line between fiction and confession to depict the inner turmoil of men who fail to conform to masculine ideals. Through a close reading of both texts, this study reveals how autofiction becomes a space for male characters to express fragility and question cultural norms, ultimately offering a more complex, humanized view of masculinity.
Keywords: autofiction, masculinity crisis, self-perception, alienation, gender identity
Introduction :
In contemporary literature, a growing body of work has begun to challenge dominant ideals of masculinity by presenting emotionally vulnerable male characters. These protagonists defy the traditional archetypes especially the emerging "sigma male" figure characterized by self-sufficiency, stoicism, and emotional detachment. Under the umbrella of non-sigma masculinity, this paper explores how autofiction becomes a powerful medium to portray emotionally complex, dependent, and introspective male figures. Specifically, it focuses on Yozo Oba in Osamu Dazai’s No Longer Human and Paul Roberts in Julian Barnes’s The Only Story.
These characters, shaped by their creators’ own autobiographical impulses, experience masculinity not as empowerment but as burden and collapse. They are emotionally porous rather than emotionally armored. Through their stories, we witness a redefinition of what it means to be a man one that moves beyond the binaries of strength/weakness, dominance/submission, or rebellion/conformity. Drawing from critical perspectives by Judith Butler and bell hooks, this paper argues that autofiction allows male protagonists to reclaim their fractured identities and articulate the crisis of masculinity without masking it under ironic detachment or heroic posturing.
This literary approach creates a space where authors can explore personal truths through partially fictionalized accounts. Both Dazai and Barnes employ autofictional elements in their novels, creating protagonists whose experiences reflect aspects of their own lives while also serving as vehicles for broader explorations of masculine identity crisis.
Sigma vs. Non-Sigma Masculinity: A Contextual Framework :
The "sigma male" has become a buzzword in digital discourse an introverted, lone-wolf figure detached from social hierarchies, but still conforming to patriarchal values of control, stoicism, and autonomy. (Valdivia, n.d.) However, both Yozo and Paul fall outside this category. Their masculinity is marked not by control, but by collapse; not by silence, but by confession.
Judith Butler’s seminal idea that “gender is an identity tenuously constituted in time… through a stylized repetition of acts” (Butler, 1990) helps us understand how these characters “do” masculinity. Their performances deviate from the expected script, leading to social punishment and emotional fragmentation.
bell hooks offers another crucial lens: “Patriarchy demands of all males that they engage in acts of psychic self-mutilation, that they kill off the emotional parts of themselves” (Hooks, 2015). Paul and Yozo fail or refuse to perform this emotional mutilation, and their narratives reveal what happens when men are allowed to feel.
"No Longer Human" follows Yozo Oba, a young man who feels fundamentally disconnected from humanity and navigates life through a series of performative masks. "The Only Story" presents Paul Roberts, who reflects on his life-defining relationship with an older, married woman and how this relationship shaped his understanding of love and himself as a man. Both protagonists struggle with societal expectations of masculinity and experience profound alienation as a result.
This paper argues that the autofictional approach in these novels creates a particularly effective framework for examining masculine identity crisis by allowing for intimate first-person explorations of male psychological distress. Through close analysis of both texts, this research will demonstrate how Dazai and Barnes use literary techniques to illuminate the psychological and sociological dimensions of masculinity in crisis.
Autofiction differs from autobiography in its "deliberate blurring of the boundaries between fact and fiction". This blurring serves multiple purposes, including providing emotional distance for authors to explore difficult personal topics and creating narrative freedom not constrained by factual accuracy.
In examining Japanese literature specifically, Irmela Hijiya-Kirschnereit (1996) notes that the "I-novel" tradition (shishōsetsu) shares many characteristics with Western autofiction but emerged independently in Japan in the early 20th century. She argues that the I-novel "is characterized by its confessional nature and focus on the author's personal experiences", making Dazai's work a natural extension of this literary tradition.(Hijiya–Kirschnereit, 1996)
Masculinity in Crisis :
The concept of masculinity crisis has been extensively explored in gender studies. R.W. Connell's work on hegemonic masculinity provides a framework for understanding how dominant masculine ideals create pressure on men to conform to specific behavioral patterns.(Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005) When men cannot or choose not to conform to these patterns, they often experience psychological distress and social alienation.
He argues that masculinity crises intensify during periods of social change when traditional gender roles are challenged. Both novels examined in this study emerge from such periods post-war Japan and post-sexual revolution Britain making them particularly rich texts for examining masculinity in flux.
He further notes that literary explorations of masculine crisis often feature protagonists who feel "fundamentally disconnected from the dominant masculine narrative". This disconnection manifests as alienation, depression, and a sense of performativity where men feel they are acting out roles rather than authentically existing.
Previous Studies on Dazai and Barnes :
Scholarly work on Dazai's novel has often focused on its autobiographical elements and its portrayal of post-war Japanese society. Alan Wolfe (1990) examines how Dazai's protagonist embodies the alienation of post-war Japanese intellectuals who struggled with Western influence and traditional Japanese values.(Wolfe, 1990) The novel's portrayal of masculine identity can be analyzed as fundamentally performative, with Yozo constructing various masks to navigate social expectations.
Research on Barnes's work has examined his exploration of memory, love, and aging. Vanessa Guignery notes that Barnes frequently uses first-person narrators who reflect on their past to understand their present selves. She specifically analyzes "The Only Story" as an exploration of how romance shapes masculine identity, arguing that Paul's relationship with Susan disrupts traditional masculine development narratives. (Guignery, 2011)
However, few studies have directly compared these authors or examined how their use of autofiction specifically illuminates masculine identity crisis. This research aims to address this gap by analyzing how both authors use autofictional techniques to explore their protagonists' struggles with masculine identity.
Yozo Oba: Hiding Behind the Mask :
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In No Longer Human, Yozo is acutely aware of his inability to be human in the conventional sense. From childhood, he performs humor to mask fear:
“I have always shaken with fright before human beings… I have always been their plaything.” (Dazai)
This line encapsulates Yozo’s self-perception: a man who is never in control, never commanding, always frightened and hiding. His clown persona laughing on the outside while deteriorating within is a parody of masculinity. Critic observes: “Yozo’s performances are acts of desperation… His failure is not heroic but quietly devastating.”. Yozo does not fight the world; he submits, erodes, and withdraws from it. This marks him as non-sigma not by choice, but by compulsion.
Yozo's crisis of masculinity in the novel manifests primarily as an inability to understand and perform normative masculine behavior. From childhood, he perceives himself as fundamentally different from others, stating, "I have always shaken with fright before human beings" (Dazai). This fear leads him to develop elaborate performances of normative masculinity.
Biographical Parallels in "No Longer Human" :
Dazai's "No Longer Human" features numerous parallels to the author's life. Like his protagonist Yozo, Dazai struggled with substance abuse, attempted suicide multiple times, and felt profoundly alienated from society. The novel's structure a found document format where the narrator discovers Yozo's notebooks and photographs creates a frame that both connects and distances the author from his protagonist.
This distancing allows Dazai to explore his own experiences of alienation while maintaining creative freedom. When Yozo confesses, "I have been sickly ever since I was a child and have frequently been confined to bed. How often as I lay there I used to think what uninspired decorations sheets and pillow cases make" (Dazai), the mundane observation carries the weight of lived experience while maintaining fictional distance.
The Performative Nature of Masculinity :
Yozo constructs a persona as a clown and comedian to navigate social expectations. He reflects, "I thought that if I kept up this kind of bluff I could get along well enough with people to survive" (Dazai). This performance represents his attempt to fulfill the social expectation that men should be confident and socially adept, even as he feels incapable of genuine connection.
The performance extends to his sexual relationships with women. Yozo's encounters with women follow patterns he has observed rather than genuine emotional connection. He describes one such relationship: "The girl and I slept together that night. I was not prompted by desire. I felt no passion. I was incapable of passion" (Dazai). This admission directly contradicts traditional masculine expectations of sexual prowess and emotional detachment, revealing instead a profound emptiness.
Failure to Embody Provider Role :
Another aspect of Yozo's masculine crisis involves his inability to fulfill the traditional male role of provider. Despite temporary success as an artist, he eventually becomes dependent on women and alcohol. His descent into addiction and dependence represents a complete inversion of the traditional masculine ideal of self-sufficiency and responsibility for others.
When reflecting on his failure, Yozo states, "I did not have a single friend I could call my own. I had not a single relative on whom I could depend" (Dazai). This isolation marks the complete failure of his attempt to perform normative masculinity, leaving him "disqualified as a human being" in his own estimation.
Narrative Structure in "The Only Story" :
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Barnes employs a more complex autofictional approach in "The Only Story". While the novel is not explicitly based on Barnes's life, he creates a protagonist who shares his middle-class English background and who narrates his story from three different perspectives: first-person ("I"), second-person ("you"), and third-person ("he"). This shifting narrative voice creates a sense of a fractured self examining his own life from multiple distances.
Barnes explains this approach in an interview: "I wanted to show how we tell different stories about ourselves at different times in our lives" (Barnes). This narrative strategy reflects the autofictional impulse to understand the self through storytelling, even when the story itself is not directly autobiographical.
Paul Roberts: The Collapse of Idealism :
This metafictional musing captures the tone of the entire novel Paul constructs his masculinity as a narrative of tenderness, not toughness. The relationship with Susan transforms from liberating to claustrophobic. His masculinity is maternal rather than martial.
Paul’s masculinity is not about strength or dominance. It is defined by care, sacrifice, and ultimately, abandonment. Even in his adult life, Paul is unable to return to the template of stoic manhood. His emotional commitment to Susan destroys his ability to connect with others, or even with himself.
He admits: “I thought love would be a solution. Instead, it turned out to be a diagnosis.” (Barnes)
This powerful line captures the non-sigma male’s crisis: love becomes not liberation but pathology. Paul’s masculinity is emotionally rich but socially unsupported. Unlike sigma males who thrive in solitude, Paul drowns in it.
Masculine Identity Crisis in "The Only Story" :
Paul's crisis in the novel takes a different form but similarly revolves around failed attempts to embody normative masculine ideals. His relationship with Susan, a married woman 29 years his senior, disrupts traditional masculine development narratives and leaves him struggling to define himself as a man.
Inverted Power Dynamics :
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In the traditional masculine narrative, men are expected to pursue younger women and maintain control in relationships. Paul's relationship with Susan inverts this dynamic in terms of age, experience, and initially, emotional investment. He reflects: "I was nineteen and she was forty-eight. That's the first thing to say... She had been married for over twenty years; I was in my second year at university... She told me she found me 'refreshing'" (Barnes). This introduction immediately positions Paul outside normative masculine relationship patterns.
As the relationship progresses, Paul takes on an increasingly caregiving role as Susan's alcoholism worsens. This role reversal further challenges traditional masculine expectations, placing Paul in a nurturing position typically coded as feminine. He admits, "I became her carer, her nurse, her protector" (Barnes), roles that conflict with his initial romantic conception of himself.
Failure of Romantic Masculinity : Rescue Fantasy :
Paul initially frames his relationship with Susan through romantic masculine ideals he is rescuing her from an unhappy marriage, defying society, and living authentically. He imagines himself as a romantic hero: "I imagined myself as the kind of person who preferred difficult love to comfortable love" (Barnes). This self-conception aligns with a particular form of masculine identity centered on courage and exceptionalism.
However, this romantic self-image collapses as Susan's condition deteriorates. Paul gradually realizes the limits of his capacity to save her or even to maintain his own identity in the relationship. He reflects, "You thought, when you first loved: I shall never be the same. And you were right" (Barnes). This realization marks both the failure of his romantic masculine ideal and his recognition that his identity has been irrevocably altered by the relationship.
Cultural Contexts of Alienation :
The different forms of alienation experienced by Yozo and Paul reflect their distinct cultural contexts. Yozo's crisis unfolds in post-war Japan, a society experiencing profound cultural disruption as traditional values collided with Western influence. His inability to understand "human" behavior reflects this broader cultural disorientation.
Paul's crisis occurs against the backdrop of changing sexual mores in late 20th-century Britain. His relationship with Susan initially seems to embody sexual liberation but ultimately traps him in unexpected ways. His reflection that "most of us have only one story to tell" (Barnes) suggests that despite cultural changes, individuals remain constrained by dominant narratives of love and gender.
The Present Relevance of Non-Sigma Masculinity :
Yozo and Paul stop performing and what follows is not empowerment but emotional exile. Their narratives underline the need for support structures that allow men to be vulnerable without social penalty. Rather than being pathologized, their emotional dependence should be seen as a form of radical honesty. In their silence and sadness, they reflect a masculinity that is human, not heroic.
Conclusion :
In conclusion, this paper explored how the characters Yozo Oba from "No Longer Human" and Paul Roberts from "The Only Story" represent non-sigma masculinity, which challenges traditional ideas of what it means to be a man. Unlike the sigma male, who is emotionally distant and self-sufficient, Yozo and Paul show their emotional vulnerabilities and struggle to fit into societal expectations. Through their inner struggles and self-doubt, these characters highlight the difficulties faced by men who do not conform to the typical masculine ideals. Their stories reveal how traditional masculinity can be limiting, often leading to confusion, emotional isolation, and a sense of not belonging. By using autofiction, both authors give us an intimate look at the emotional complexities of these characters, making their crises of masculinity more relatable and human.
However, there are gaps in this study that could be explored further in the future. One of these is the lack of comparison with other types of masculinity, such as more traditional or dominant male figures, to see how they differ from non-sigma masculinity. Another gap is the impact of cultural, social, and class factors on these characters’ experiences of masculinity. A deeper exploration of their relationships with others, especially romantic and familial ties, would also provide more insight into how their masculinity is shaped by those around them. Overall, this study contributes to the ongoing discussion of masculinity today by showing that there are many ways to be a man, and that vulnerability and emotional openness should be recognized as valid parts of male identity.
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