Indian Poetics

Indian Poetics: Rasa Theory

Introduction : 

Indian Poetics, traditionally known as Kāvyashāstra or Alaṅkāraśāstra, refers to the study of literary theory in ancient and classical Indian thought. Every literature has roots and beginnings so as Sanskrit literature. Sanskrit literature and poetics worked hand in hand eastablished various theory of poetics. It is a comprehensive framework developed to explain the nature, purpose, structure, emotional impact, and philosophical significance of poetry and drama in Sanskrit and other classical Indian languages.

Unlike Western poetics, which often focuses on form and structure, Indian poetics centers around aesthetic experience (rasa-anubhava), emotional evocation, and suggestive meaning (dhvani). It treats poetry as a transformative experience, not merely an artistic creation. The main concern of Indian poetics is how a literary text affects the reader or audience emotionally and spiritually.  Inadian poetics provides deeper understanding-तलावगाहन for literature. Indian poetics is the ancient poetics especially sanskrit poetics.  Rasa, Vakrokti, Alamkara, Auchitya, Riti etc. are branches of Indian poetics.

#Core Focus of Indian Poetics:

• Understanding how literature creates emotional experience (rasa).

• Exploring the expressive beauty of language through figures of speech (alaṅkāra).

• Examining how suggestion (dhvani) reveals deeper meanings.

• Emphasizing the psychological, ethical, and spiritual effects of literature.

• Encouraging universal accessibility through art, as a form of knowledge and bliss (ānanda).

 

Rasa theory of Bharata in Vedas, rasa means sap or essence experience of the supreme reality. Seers of the Vedas knew about the need for ‘Sahridayatwa’ to understand poetry. Valmiki’s sloka overpowered by the intense feeling of pathos karunarasa of Ramayana kraunca birds.

Bharata lived during the first or second part of the first century B.C. deals with various aspects of dramaturgy. Drama was a much developed art during his times. Gives a proper definition to rasa in his Natyashastra. Language is vocal symbol and experience based interpretations are limited. So, criticism makes vision broder in evaluating work of art. 

"सर्वशास्त्रसम्पन्नं

सर्वशिल्पप्रवर्तकम्।

नाट्याख्यं पञ्चमं वेदं

सैतिहासं करोम्यहम्॥" 

Meaning : Lord Brahma said : ” I hereby describe Natya which is enriched by all sciences and sculptures which can be considered as the panchama veda(Fifth veda) apart from the four vedas.

Anecdote of Uttpatti of Natyashashtra : 

The Nāṭyaśāstra is the world's oldest treatise on performing arts. It is more than 2,500 years old. This encyclopedic work on art by Bharata muni is divided into 36 chapters and contains more than 6,000 verses. The first chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra gives a semi-historical and purāṇic account of the creation of the work. Bharata narrates it thus:

At the end of the kṛtayuga and at the on-set of the Tretāyuga, people on earth got addicted to base sentiments (ग्राम्य-धर्म) such as excessive desire, greed, jealousy, and anger and found their state of happiness mixed with sorrow. So the devas, with Indra leading them, approached Brahma (the deity of creation) and requested for audio-visual entertainment (क्रीडनीयकमिच्छामो दृश्यं श्रव्यं च यद्भवेत्). They also requested that this be made accessible to all people from all places. This indeed is the need of all people of all times – respite from the world which is filled with conflicting emotions.(Bhardwaj)

For detailed reading refer this : The Story of the Origin of Natyashastra - 1

Indian Poetics and Aesthetics [ Visit this blog]

Theory of Rasa: 

Rasa is an ancient Indian idea about the special feeling or mood that art can give you. It's like the unique flavor or essence of a piece of art, whether it's a picture, a story, or a performance. This concept comes from Bharata, who lived a long time ago, maybe between 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE. Another person, Abhinavagupta, talked more about it around 1000 CE.

According to Bharata, there are different human feelings like happiness, laughter, sadness, anger, and others. These feelings can be turned into different flavors of art, like love, humor, sadness, rage, heroism, fear, disgust, wonder, and peace. Experiencing these flavors in art is like a special reward for being good in a past life. So, rasa is like the special taste or mood that art can make you feel.

The word rasa appears in ancient Vedic literature. In Rigveda, it connotes a liquid, an extract and flavor. In Atharvaveda, rasa in many contexts means "taste", and also the sense of "the sap of grain". According to Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe – a professor of Drama, rasa in the Upanishads refers to the "essence, self-luminous consciousness, quintessence" but also "taste" in some contexts. In post-Vedic literature, the word generally connotes "extract, essence, juice or tasty liquid". Rasa in an aesthetic sense is suggested in the Vedic literature, but the oldest surviving manuscripts, with the rasa theory of Hinduism, are of Natya Shastra.

The theory of rasa is expounded by The Aitareya Brahmana in Chapter 6 of the Natya Shastra, an ancient Sanskrit text ascribed to Bharata Muni. Bramha's Srirti[world] is of Shad Rasa. (6 rasa)

ભાવનું ઉર્ધ્વીકરણ એટલે રાસની પ્રાપ્તિ.

Now (he) glorifies the arts, the arts are refinement of the self (atma-samskrti). With these the worshipper recreates his self, that is made of rhythms, meters.

विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद्ररस निष्पत्ति:।

"Rasa is produced from a combination of Determinants(Vibhava), Consequents(Anubhava) and Transitory States(Vyabhicharibhava)."

Sthayi Bhavas blend with Vibhav, Anubhav, Vyabhicharibhav for Rasa, as per साहित्य दर्पण (Sahitya Darpan). Shthyi bhavas lead us to Sanchari bhavas. There are 33 kinds of Sanchari Bhavas. Sanchari means-ક્ષણિક. It is like tides of Ocean. On the other hand it reflects with मुखवैवर्ण्य- facial emotins. 

Another is Satvik Bhavas, normally not visible. In Kumarsambhav when Narad came with the praposal of Shiva, Parvati is drooping eyelids, It is Satvik Bhavas. 

બીજ માંથી પૂનમ દઈ દે સહેજ પાપં નમેલી ખોલી નાખ. This line by Manoj Khanderiya is also example of Satvik bhava.

Sthayi Bhavas : स्थिरभाव रसनामलाभते

Bharat in Natyashastra describes eight rasas. Later on Abinavgupta add one more rasa namely "shanta" in it. 

शृङ्गार करुण वीर रौद्र हास्य भयानका।

बिभत्साद्भुत् शान्तश्च नव नाट्ये रसास्मृता:॥

Table of Rasa

		Table	of Rasa
No.	Rasa	Bhavas arise out of this rasa		Presiding Deity	Colour
1	Shrungar (शृङ्गारः)	Romance, Love, attractiveness		Vishnu	Light green	The Rasraja येन श्रुंग रियते
2	Hasyam (हास्यं)	Laughter, Mirth, Comedy		Shiva	White
3	Raudram (रौद्रं)	Fury, Anger		Shiva	Red
4	Karuṇyam (कारुण्यं)	Compassion, mercy		Yama	Grey	क्रुणप्रेक्ष्येषु संपल्वहा सुखदुख्यो
5	Bibhatsam (बीभत्सं)	Disgust, aversion		Shiva	Blue
6	Bhayanakam (भयानकं)	Horror, terror		Yama	Black
7	Veeram (वीरं)	Heroism		Indra	Saffron	रक्तसनेत्रता चास्य भेदिनि युद्धध्विरतः
8	Adbhutam (अद्भुतं)	Wonder, amazement		Brahma	Yellow	शृङ्गार करुण वीर रौद्र हास्य भयानका।
9	Shantam	Peace or tranquillity		Vishnu	Perpetual white.	निस्पृहत्वं समाः

 

In Sanskrit Shishupalvadh is example of pattern poetry. One example is शुष्‍क वृक्ष तिष्ठति. One can interchange the words but menaing remains same. Rasaparpti is basically connected to western theory of Art for Art's sake. It connects Kalakar with Bhavak.

1. The Erotic Rasa :

The Erotic (Sringara) Rasa proceeds from the Dominant State of love (Rati) and it has as its basis a bright attire; for whatever in this world is white, pure, bright and beautiful is appreciated in terms of the dominant state of love (sringara).

 It has two bases: union (Sambhoga) and separation (Vipralamba), of these two, the Erotic Sentiment in union arises from determinants like the pleasure of the season, the enjoyment of garlands, ornaments, (the company of) beloved persons objects (of senses), splendid mansions, going to a garden, and enjoying [oneself] there, seeing the [beloved one], hearing [his or her words], playing and dallying [with him or her]. 

      It should be represented on the stage by consequents such as clever movement of eye, eyebrows, glances, soft and delicate movement of limbs and sweet words and similar other things. Transitory states in it do not include fear, indolence, cruelty and disgust.

    [The Erotic sentiment] in separation should be represented on the stage by consequents such as indifference, languor, fear, jealousy, fatigue, anxiety, yearning, drowsiness, sleep, dreaming awakening, illness, insanity, epilepsy, inactivity, [fainting], death and other conditions.

2. The Comic Sentiment :

The comic (hasya) sentiment has as its basis the Dominant emotion of laughter. This is created by determinants such as showing unseemly dress or ornament, impudence, greediness, quarrel, defective limb, use of irrelevant words, mentioning of different faults, and similar other things. This (the comic sentiment) is to be represented on the stage by consequents like the throbbing of the lips, the nose and the cheek, opening the eyes wide or contracting them, perspiration, colour of the face, and taking hold of the sides.

 Transitory states in it are indolence, dissimulation, drowsiness, sleep, dreaming, insomnia, envy and the like. This (sentiment), is of two kinds; self -centred and centred in others. When a person himself laughs it relates to the self – centred (Comic sentiment), but when he makes others laugh it (the comic sentiment therein ) is centred in others.

It has six varieties of which I shall speak presently. They are: Slight Smile (Smita), Smile (Hasita), Gentle Laughter (Vihasita), Laughter of Ridicule (Upahasita), Vulgar Laughter (apahasita) and Excessive Laughter (Atihasita). Two by two they belong respectively to the superior, the middle and the inferior types [of persons].

To persons of the superior type belong the slight smile (Smita) and the smile (Hasita), to those of the middle type of Gentle Laughter (vihasita) and the Laughter of Ridicule (upahasita) to those of the inferior type the Vulgar Laughter (apahasita) and the Violent Laughter (atihasita)

3. The Pathetic Sentiment

Now the Pathetic (karuna) Sentiment arises from the dominant state of sorrow. It grows from Determinants such as affliction under a curse, separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, death, captivity flight)[ from one’s own place], [dangerous] accidents or any other misfortune. This is to be represented on the stage by means of consequents such as, shedding tears, lamentation, dryness of the mouth, change of colour, drooping limbs, being out of breath, loss of memory and the like.

 Transitory states connected with it are indifference, languor, anxiety, inactivity, insanity, epilepsy, fear, fainting, sadness, dejection, illness, inactivity, insanity, epilepsy, fear, indolence, death, paralysis, tremor, change of colour, weeping, loss of voice and the like.

4. The Furious Sentiment : 

Now the Furious (raudra) Sentiment has as its basis the dominant state of anger. It owes its origin to Raksasas, Danavas and haughty men, and is caused by fights. This is created by determinants such as anger, rape, abuse, insult, untrue allegation, exorcizing, threatening, revengefulness, jealousy and the like. Its actions are beating, breaking, crushing, cutting, piercing, taking up arms, hurling of missiles, fighting, drawing, of blood, and similar other deeds. 

This is to be represented on the stage by means of consequents such as red eyes, knitting of eyebrows, defiance, biting of the lips, movement of the cheeks, pressing one hand with the other, and the like. Transitory states in it are presence of mind, determination, energy, indignation, fury, perspiration, trembling, horripilation, chocking voice and the like.

5. The Heroic Sentiment : 

Now the Herioc (vira) sentiment, relates to the superior type of persons and has energy as its basis. This is created by determinants such as presence of mind, perseverance, diplomacy, discipline, military strength, aggressiveness, reputation of might, influence and the like. It is to be represented on the stage by consequents such as firmness, patients, heroism, charity, diplomacy and the like. Transitory states in it are contentment, judgement, pride, agitation, energy (vega) ferocity, indignation, remembrance, horripilation and the like.

6. The Terrible sentiment : 

Now the Terrible (bhayanaka) sentiment has as its basis the Dominant state of fear. This is created by Determinants like hideous noise, sight of ghosts, panic and anxiety due to (untimely cry of jackals and owls, staying in an empty house or forest, sight of death or captivity of dear ones, or news of it, or discussion about it. 

It is to be represented on the stage by consequents such as trembling of the hands and the feet, horripilation, change of colour and loss of voice. Its Transitory states are paralysis, perspiration, choking voice, horripilation, trembling, loss of voice, change of colour, fear, stupefaction, dejection, agitation, restlessness, inactivity, fear, epilepsy and death and the like.

7. The Odious sentiment : 

Now the odious (bibhatsa) sentiment has as its basis the dominant state of disgust. It is created by determinants like hearing of unpleasant, offensive, impure and harmful things or seeing them or discussing them. It is to be represented on the stage by consequents such as stopping the movement of all the limbs, narrowing down of the mouth, vomiting, spitting, shaking the limbs [in disgust] and the like. Transitory states in it are epilepsy, delusion, agitation, fainting, sickness, death and the like.

8. The Marvellous sentiment :

The Marvellous (adbhuta) Sentiment has as its basis the dominant state of astonishment. It is created by determinants such as sight of heavenly beings or events, attainment of desired objects, entrance into a superior mansion, temple, audience hall (sabha), a seven – storied palace and (seeing) illusory and magical acts.

 It is to be represented on the stage by consequents such as wide opening of eyes, looking with fixed gaze, hooripilation, tears [ of joy] perspiration, joy, uttering words of approbation, making gifts, crying incessantly ha, ha, ha waving the end of dhoti or sari, and movement of fingers and the like. Transitory states in it are weeping, paralysis, perspiration like. Transitory states in it are weeping, paralysis, perspiration, chocking voice, horripilation, agitation, hurry, inactivity, death and the like.

Vibhav : 

With whom rasa emerges.One example from Abhijnanan Shankuntalam is Dushyant and Shakuntala. They are Almbanvibhav or Uddipan vibahav. or Romeo and Juliet are vibhav-excitant. 

Anubhav :

The places like the tamala-where Dushyant and Shkuntala met, oak tree, garden in Romeo and Juliet are the examples of anubhav. Khemi by Ra. Vi. Pathak is exception in the Anubhav. Because for arousal of Shringara rasa there should be Yathochit-proper atmosphere. Another example is the gujrati movie Karsandas- Pay and Use. 

Vybhichari Bhav :

It is similar to Sanchari Bhavas-transitory feelings. It is born out of emotions itself. For example, depression out of sorrow. Sometimes this feelings are attached with more than one emotion. Like, sickness, despair, remorse are arises from sorrow. 

Samyog :

Poet has to syncronizing in such way that can not differntiate with each other. Like suger melted in milk. 

Now we will consider other acarya of the time.

First,Bhatt Lollata highlights that Rasa is not there but emerges from. उत्पत्तिवाद Shri Shankuk advocates that Rasa is the Assumption of what is the situation.अनुमितिवाद 

Sadharikarana : by Bhatt Nayak 

The theory of Sadharikarana  explains process of rasa to be experienced by a Sahrdaya-spectator. Rama and Sita are original chracters played by humans. They expressed sentimates  with dress, language and action. These all leads to emergence of Rasa in spectator. 

Generalization is only possilble when, the characters act how author has thought. 

Abhinav Gupta talks about how characters loose their identity when they played a role. Spectators assume Rama's character as real Rama, feels the intensity of emotion. For example, Sita-virah, the agony of Rama is felt by them. This leads to be free from the beliefs that I am in agony. So in a way, chaeacters are becoming universal and creates atmosphere for catharsis. 

Dhananjaya sheds light upon the theory of Universalization. He declared that it is the reader or spectator who enjoys the aesthetic experience. He asked some questions like,

1. Who is the object for the reader ? 

2. How can reader identify themselves in Historical Ram and Sita ? 

At the concluding discussion this all acaryas talked about Poetic pleasure. We can enjoy poetic relish only when a particular event becomes generlized. 

2. A Historical Sketch of Indian Poetics

- Begins with Rigveda - poetic hymns with symbolic meaning.

- Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata show early rasa and poetic expression.

- Natyashastra by Bharata - foundation of Indian Poetics.

- Natya as Panchama Veda: combines elements from all 4 Vedas.

- Key Scholars: Bhamaha (Alankara), Dandin (Riti), Anandavardhana (Dhvani), Kuntaka (Vakrokti), Kshem- Historical shift from sacred to aesthetic systems.

- Poetics evolved through performance, philosophy, and audience impact.

3. The Theoretical Framework of Indian Poetics

- Rasa Theory (Bharata): 9 Rasas, emotion-focused aesthetics.

- Dhvani Theory (Anandavardhana): Suggested meaning over literal meaning.

- Vakrokti Theory (Kuntaka): Creative, indirect expression adds beauty.

- Aucitya Theory (Kshemendra): Appropriateness ensures emotional harmony.

- Alankara Theory: Use of figures of speech to enhance rasa.

- Supporting Concepts: Guna (qualities), Riti (style), Dosa (faults).

- Framework = holistic, combining philosophy, psychology, and poetics.

References :

AnuHoney. “” the Natyarambha Sloka “.” Natyarambha, 6 July 2025, natyarambha.wordpress.com/2014/02/13/the-natyarambha-sloka.

Barad, Dilip. Indian Poetics. blog.dilipbarad.com/2022/02/indian-poetics.html.

Bhardwaj, Arjun. “The Story of the Origin of Natyashastra - 1.” Prekshaa, www.prekshaa.in/story-origin-natyashastra-1.

Keith, Arthur Berriedale. The Sanskrit Drama. 29 June 2025, www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/74314/pg74314-images.html.