Colonial Studies, Post-Colonial Studies, and Gender Studies in Relation to Translation Studies
Colonial and Post-Colonial Studies in Translation
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Language as Power: During colonial rule, colonizers often enforced their languages on the colonized, resulting in the dominance of European languages in education, governance, and literature. Translation studies explore how this linguistic imperialism influenced the transmission of knowledge and cultural exchange. Exa. Manusmitri translation by Britishers
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Representation and Voice: Post-colonial translation studies focus on how texts from colonized societies are translated into dominant languages, often exposing the risks of misrepresentation and the silencing of indigenous voices. Theories from post-colonial studies are key to analyzing and critiquing these dynamics. Exa. African/ Indian folklore translation
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Cultural Hybridity: The concept of cultural hybridity from post-colonial theory plays a significant role in translation, as translators frequently work across cultures, creating hybrid texts that incorporate elements from both the source and target cultures. Exa. Lathi-charge. Chai, Kurta, Saree etc word's presence in English language.
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Resistance and Reclamation: Translation can serve as a form of resistance, reclaiming and elevating marginalized languages and literatures. Translators may intentionally adopt strategies to counter colonial influences and bring forward indigenous perspectives. Exa. Dalit Literature, Black literature.
Gender Studies in Translation
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Gendered Language: Gender studies examine how language shapes and enforces gender norms. In translation, this involves addressing how gendered expressions and biases in the source language are managed in the target language to prevent perpetuating sexist stereotypes. Exa. God, Doctor, Police etc words generally conotate male language. "Man-made" etc.
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Feminist Translation: This approach stresses the importance of centering women’s voices and experiences in translation. It challenges patriarchal assumptions in language and aims to make female perspectives more visible. Exa. Retellings of the epics like Sita by Amish Tripathi, Palace of Illusion by Chitra Banerjee Divakurni.
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Intersectionality: With its emphasis on intersectionality how race, gender, class, and other social categories overlap gender studies inform translation by encouraging attention to how complex identities are represented and translated. ( Kimberle Crenshaw ) Exa, Dalit or Black female writer.
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Queer Theory and Translation: As part of gender studies, queer theory explores sexuality and non-normative identities. Translation studies draw on these insights to handle LGBTQ+ content with care, ensuring respectful and inclusive representation.
Practical Examples
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Translating Post-Colonial Literature: Translators of post-colonial works must navigate cultural intricacies, historical backgrounds, and political subtexts to convey the author’s intended meaning and worldview accurately.
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Feminist Translation Practices: Feminist translators might choose to highlight gendered nuances that are understated in the original, or deliberately emphasize female agency and subjectivity in the translated text.
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Queer Narratives: Translating queer literature demands sensitivity to how different cultures understand and express gender and sexuality, ensuring that translations respect and reflect queer identities authentically.
In nutshell, colonial, post-colonial, and gender theories enrich translation studies by offering critical perspectives that help translators engage with the complex intersections of language, identity, power, and culture.
Process of Translation : Decoding and Recoding
There are two approaches in the Translation.
1. Product oriented
2. Process oriented : Translator go through process of decoding, transfer, and recoding. In order to achieve the SL translator plays three role.
1) Reader 2) Bilingual 3) Writer
What Is Decoding and Recoding?
Decoding and recoding are the two core stages in the translation process, as proposed by Eugene Nida (1964).
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Decoding: The translator interprets and understands the message in the Source Language (SL).
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Recoding: The translator then recreates or reforms that message in the Target Language (TL) in a natural and culturally meaningful way.
Diagram by Nida :Source Text → Analysis → Transfer → Restructuring → Target Text
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# Decoding :
The term 'decoding' refen to the process involved in, arriving at the message coded inthe text to be translated by means of analysis and interpretation. It makes the text intelligible and comprehensible. Decoding is relatively complex activity this process provides at least four different kinds of meaning : 1) grammatical, b) referential, c) connotational and, d) socio-cultural.
#Grammatical Meaning :
The grammatical meaning refers to the meaning of a linguistic structure. It emphasizes the relationship between different units of a language. For example, take the active and passive voice construction.
Sentence:
Mohan frightens Shiela.
This sentence looks simple, but it can have two different meanings because of how we understand the verb "frightens" and the role of "Mohan".
The same construction may simultaneously contain more than one semantic element in some other language.
"Tere bina zindagi se koi shikwa toh nahi"
From: Aandhi (1975)
Line: Tere bina zindagi se koi shikwa toh nahi…
Two readings:
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I don’t have any complaints with life...
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Do I not have complaints with life without you...?
Ambiguity: Is it a statement or a question? Tone and punctuation change the meaning. The absence of clarity adds to the beauty, but in translation, it needs to be interpreted based on emotional context.
A sentence can be structurally (grammatically) ambiguous and thus express more than one' meaning. In such a case, one gets the semantic interpretation by relation to the ambiguous sentence to different grammatical structures.
"Main tumhare bina jee sakta hoon."
Two tones:
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Confident declaration – I can live without you.
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Sad, defeated – I can live without you… but I’ll suffer.
Ambiguity: Tone and delivery affect translation. The literal meaning is same, but the emotional message changes completely.
#Referential Meaning :
Emphasis on relationship between language and events and entities. In the process of translation two meanings first dictionary and another referencial one.
Text (Bhagavad Gita, 2:47):
“Karmanye vadhikaraste, ma phaleshu kadachana.”
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Word: Karma
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Referential Meaning: action, duty, work.
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In the context, it means perform your duty (not “fate” or “destiny” which are later connotations).
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Why Important: If a translator takes “karma” as fate, the sentence changes meaning completely. Referential meaning (action/duty) is the accurate one here.
When Hanuman first sees Sita in Ashok Vatika, he exclaims:
“Dhanya janani janmabhumi ca!” (Blessed is the mother and blessed is the land that bore you.)
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Word: Dhanya
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Referential Meaning: blessed, fortunate, prosperous.
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In this context, it is an exclamation of wonder, like Shakespeare’s “Marry”.
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If a translator renders “Dhanya” as only wealthy, it is wrong. Correct meaning = fortunate, blessed.
Word: Ravana
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Connotative Meaning: Symbol of evil, arrogance, lust, and tyranny. In Indian culture, Ravana is not just a person but a metaphor for adharma (unrighteousness).
- The classroom turned into a “fish market.”
- That man is a “lion” on the cricket field.
Problems of Equivalence in Translation
1. Why is Equivalence a Problem?
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Equivalence means finding something in the Target Language (TL) that conveys the same meaning as in the Source Language (SL).
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The challenge: Not every word, idiom, or metaphor has an exact match in another language.
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Example:
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Italian idiom menare il can per l’aia → literally means “to lead the dog around the threshing floor.”
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In English, the correct equivalent is “to beat about the bush.”
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The literal translation makes no sense, so the translator must find a phrase in TL that serves the same function.
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2. Idioms & Metaphors
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Idioms and metaphors are culture-bound.
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Word-for-word translation often fails because the image in one culture may not exist in another.
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So, translators often create equivalence rather than finding it.
3. Popovic’s Four Types of Equivalence
Popovic (1970s) explained that equivalence is not just one thing, but can be seen in different ways:
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Linguistic Equivalence – Word-for-word or grammar-based translation.
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Ex: Gujarati “પુસ્તક” → Hindi “किताब” → English “book.”
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Pragmatic Equivalence – Keeping the same impact or effect.
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Ex: Bible’s “Greet each other with a holy kiss” → modern English: “Give each other a handshake.”
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Stylistic Equivalence – Preserving the style, tone, or expression.
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Ex: A poem in Hindi written in a playful tone should also sound playful in English.
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Textual Equivalence – Maintaining the structure and flow of the text.
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Ex: A dialogue form in a play should remain a dialogue form in translation, not changed into narration.
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4. Nida’s Two Types of Equivalence
Eugene Nida gave another framework:
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Formal Equivalence → Sticking closely to form and content (word-to-word, concept-to-concept).
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Ex: Sanskrit shlokas translated literally into English, keeping the structure intact.
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Dynamic Equivalence → Making sure the effect on the reader is the same as in the original.
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Ex: Romans 16:16 → “Greet each other with a holy kiss” was translated as “Give one another a hearty handshake all round” to suit modern readers.
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5. Neubert’s View
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Neubert said equivalence should be seen as a semiotic category (a sign system).
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It has 3 parts:
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Syntactic (sentence structure)
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Semantic (meaning)
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Pragmatic (effect on the reader)
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6. Invariant Core (Popovic again)
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When many translators translate the same poem, the versions may look different.
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But all translations will carry an “invariant core” – the essential meaning or emotion of the original text.
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Example: Ramayana retold in many Indian languages – the style may differ, but Rama’s exile, Sita’s abduction, and Ravana’s defeat remain the same (the invariant).
Untranslatability :
What is Untranslatability?
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Untranslatability happens when a word, phrase, or cultural idea from one language cannot be fully expressed in another language.
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Some words are so connected to their culture, tradition, or emotion that there is no perfect match in another language.
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This creates what is called a lexical gap.
Example:
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Hindi word “Jugaad” → means a clever or resourceful fix using limited resources. English has no exact single word for it.
Translation Strategies to Handle Untranslatability
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Adaptation (Free Translation)
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Replace the source culture’s idea with something more familiar in the target culture.
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Example: In the Ramayana, the concept of “Rajasuya Yagna” can be adapted as “a grand royal sacrifice for power and recognition,” since non-Indian readers may not know the ritual.
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Borrowing
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Use the original word directly in the translation.
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Example: Words like “Namaste”, “Prasad”, or “Ayodhya” are often borrowed into English as they are, since no proper English equivalents exist.
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Calque (Literal Translation of Parts)
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Translate each part of a phrase word-for-word.
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Example: “Rajdhani Express” → “Capital Express” (literal, but may sound odd in English).
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Compensation
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If something cannot be directly translated, the translator adds meaning elsewhere.
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Example: Hindi has the pronouns “tu” (intimate), “tum” (familiar), and “aap” (respectful), but English only has “you.” A translator may add politeness markers in English dialogue (“sir,” “please”) to make up for the loss.
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Paraphrase (Explanation)
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Use a phrase or sentence instead of one word.
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Example: The Gujarati word “Vishwadarshan” → translated as “a vision of the entire universe.”
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Translator’s Notes
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Add a small note to explain the cultural meaning.
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Example: While translating “Karva Chauth”, the translator may add: “a fasting ritual observed by Hindu wives for their husband’s long life.”
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Factors That Cause Untranslatability
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Cultural Concepts
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Example: “Char Dham Yatra” in Hinduism has no direct translation in English; it refers specifically to four sacred pilgrimage sites.
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Lexical Gaps
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Example: The Sanskrit word “Dharma” cannot be fully translated into English as just “religion” or “duty,” since it has broader moral and spiritual meanings.
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Emotional & Sacred Words
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Example: The word “Bhakti” is more than just “devotion” in English; it carries spiritual surrender, love, and religious emotion.
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Conclusion
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Untranslatability shows that language and culture are deeply linked.
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Some words like dharma, jugaad, namaste, prasad carry meanings beyond dictionary definitions.
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A translator’s role is not only to change words but also to bridge cultures.
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Through adaptation, borrowing, paraphrasing, and notes, translators bring readers as close as possible to the original meaning.
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