Translation – I History, Scope, and Types of Translation

 Translation – I

Translation 1- Scope and Types of Translation

Translation_ Definition, Scope & Historical Development.pptx from DhatriParmar

This blog offers an insightful overview of Translation Studies, tracing its development from a language-based activity to a culturally and historically rich field of inquiry. It explores key milestones—from the Roman theorists Cicero and Horace to the transformative role of Bible translations in shaping European languages. 

The post also highlights how translation has influenced literature, culture, and identity across time. For a visual summary of these ideas, click below to explore the Coggle diagram.

Coggle Diagram

History of Translation

Translators have always played an important role in society. In the early days, they helped in developing local languages and national identities. They continued to help society grow through religion, science, literature, and education.

🏛️ In Ancient Times

📖 The Septuagint

The first big translation in the Western world was the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek.
It happened in the 3rd century BCE in Alexandria, Egypt.
This translation is called the Septuagint.
It is said that 70 translators worked separately, and all versions came out the same (according to legend).
This translation helped Jews who no longer spoke Hebrew read their holy book.

Jerome (4th century CE)

Jerome translated the Bible into Latin.
His translation is called the Vulgate.

📚 Cicero (55 BCE)

Cicero also translated from Greek to Latin. He believed a translator is like an artist. He said we should translate meaningfully, not count words like coins. He said a translator should not translate word-for-word, but sense-for-sense. He wrote: “Not word for word, but sense for sense.”

 Kumārajīva (4th century CE)

Kumārajīva was a Buddhist monk and translator. He translated many Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese. His translation of the Diamond Sutra is very famous.

Arabs and Greek Knowledge

After the Arab conquest of Greek regions, many Greek books on science and philosophy were translated into Arabic.
This helped preserve and spread ancient knowledge.

In the Middle Ages : 

Toledo School of Translators (12th–13th century)

In Toledo, Spain, translators worked on Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek books.
They translated them into Latin and Spanish.
This place became a center of learning in Europe.

Roger Bacon (13th century)

Roger Bacon said a translator must:

• Know both languages well

• Understand the subject matter

 Geoffrey Chaucer (14th century)

Chaucer translated French and Latin works into English.
He also adapted stories from the Italian writer Boccaccio.
He helped build an English literary tradition through translation.

 John Wycliffe (1382–84)

Wycliffe translated the Bible from Latin to English.
This was the first full Bible in English.
He wanted ordinary people to read and understand the Bible.

Thomas Malory (1485)

• Wrote Le Morte d’Arthur, based on King Arthur’s legends.

• It was a free translation/adaptation of French and English stories.

• Malory also added his own new stories, like that of Sir Gareth.

William Tyndale (1525)

• Translated the New Testament from Hebrew and Greek into English.

• He was one of the first to use the original biblical texts, not Latin.

• His Bible became the first mass-produced English Bible.

• Tyndale was executed for translating the Bible without church permission. Burned at stake.

• His work was finished by his followers and influenced the King James Bible.

Martin Luther (1522–34)

• Translated the Bible into German.

• He believed a translator should always translate into their own native language.

• His Bible helped shape modern German

17th Century: Art, Faithfulness, and Clarity in Translation

 Cervantes and the Tapestry Metaphor

• Cervantes, the famous Spanish author of Don Quixote (1605–1615), had a critical view of translation.

• He said translations are like viewing a beautiful tapestry from the back you can see the picture, but it’s messy and unclear.

• He believed only Greek-to-Latin translations were truly clear.

 John Dryden’s Artistic View

• John Dryden, an English poet and translator, believed that a translator is like a painter copying a person’s portrait.

• He thought translation should feel natural in English, as if the original writer was English.

• But he warned against changing too much a translator should be faithful to the original.

• John Dryden classified translation into three types: metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation. Metaphrase is a literal, word-for-word translation. Paraphrase focuses on conveying the general meaning rather than strict word-for-word accuracy. Imitation is a more liberal adaptation where the translator takes significant liberties with the source text. Dryden favored paraphrase as the ideal middle ground, avoiding the constraints of metaphrase and the potential for distortion in imitation. 

  Metaphrase:

  This involves a very close, literal translation, often line-by-line and word-for-word. Dryden considered this approach too rigid and likely to produce unnatural or nonsensical text in the target language. 

  Paraphrase:

  This method prioritizes conveying the sense and meaning of the original text while allowing for some flexibility in wording and sentence structure. Dryden believed this approach struck the right balance, capturing the essence of the original while adapting it to the target language's natural expression. 

  Imitation:

  This is the most liberal approach, where the translator takes significant liberties with the source text, even adapting or altering its themes and ideas. Dryden viewed this as potentially diverging too far from the original author's intent.

Alexander Pope’s Neat Translation

• Alexander Pope translated Homer’s works.

• He tried to bring order and structure to the “wild” style of the original.

• This shows how translators adapted texts to suit their own style and readers’ taste.

 Two Key Concepts Developed:

• Faithfulness = How truly a translation represents the original meaning.

• Transparency = How naturally the translation sounds in the new language.

18th Century: Style over Accuracy

 Johann Gottfried Herder

• German scholar Herder said that translators should always translate into their own language.

• In the 18th century, many translators focused more on making texts easy to read than staying true to the original.

 Alexander Tytler (1791)

• Wrote Essay on the Principles of Translation.

• He said that reading a lot is better than relying only on dictionaries when learning to translate well.

 Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński (1783)

• A Polish scholar who said a translator must not only read but also listen to the spoken language to fully understand it.

 Ignacy Krasicki (1803)

• A Polish poet and novelist, he translated from French and Greek.

• In his essay On Translating Books, he wrote that translation is a difficult and noble art, meant for talented and thoughtful people.

• He believed translating is a way to serve the country and help people learn.

 19th Century: Accuracy and Style

• In the 1800s, translators became more serious about being accurate.

• Their goal became: “The text, the whole text, and nothing but the text.”

• Victorians added footnotes to explain difficult parts, but still wanted readers to feel the work was foreign.

• A famous exception:

• Edward FitzGerald translated Persian poems (The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyám) in 1859.

• He changed a lot, but his version is still the most popular.

Key Thinker: Friedrich Schleiermacher (1813)

• He said there are two ways to translate:

  • Domestication = Make the text sound like it was written in the reader’s language.

  • Foreignization = Keep the feeling of the original culture.

• He preferred foreignization: moving the reader towards the author.

Yan Fu’s 3 Rules (1898)

A Chinese scholar who translated social science books:

1. Faithfulness – Be true to the original.

2. Expressiveness – Make sure the reader understands.

3. Elegance – Use good, educated language.
   He believed expressiveness was the most important.

Key Idea of Nida’s Theory : 

“Translation is reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the message of the source language — first in meaning, second in style.”

Dynamic Equivalence :  Dynamic equivalence theory, developed by Eugene Nida, is a translation approach that prioritizes equivalent effect in the target language, rather than strict adherence to the source text's form. The goal is for the translated text to have the same impact on the target audience as the original text had on its audience. This often involves adapting sentence structures and wording to achieve a natural and understandable translation in the target language. 

Meaning first, style second

Based on linguistics + context + emotions

20th Century: Interpretation and Theory

• Translators now believed translation involved interpretation and personal choice.

Joseph Conrad & Aniela Zagórska

• Conrad told his niece: “Don’t just translate word for word. Use your feeling and make it sound natural.”

Jorge Luis Borges

• He translated famous writers (Kafka, Woolf, Poe).

• Believed a translation could:

  • Be better than the original

  • Be different, and still be right

Translation Studies Becomes a Field

• In 1972, James S. Holmes defined “Translation Studies” as an academic discipline.

• It became a field that combines literature, linguistics, philosophy, history, and more.

 Interpreting Becomes Separate

• Interpreting = Spoken translation.

• Translation = Written.

• Interpreting became a separate area of study with a focus on training and practice.

 21st Century: New Challenges & Tools

• Translators now shape languages by borrowing words and ideas.

• Translation Studies includes computer science, AI, legal studies, media, etc.

• The internet created a big market for translation:

  • Good: more work, global clients

  • Bad: low pay, unpaid “volunteer” jobs

 Modern Tools

• MT = Machine Translation (like Google Translate)

• CAT = Computer-Assisted Translation
  Still, many translators want to be seen as artists, not machines.

Works Cited : 

Eco, Umberto. Mouse or Rat? Translation as Negotiation. Translated by Alastair McEwen, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.

Nida, Eugene A., and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. E. J. Brill, 1969.

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. Routledge, 1995. 

 

Men without Women by Haruki Murakami

Hello bookworms,

I just finished reading Men Without Women by Haruki Murakami, and I have a lot of thoughts. This is my first book by Murakami so I had mixed feelings when I started it. This book is not like a normal storybook where everything is clear. It is a collection of short stories, and each one talks about a man who is somehow alone or has lost a woman in his life. The stories are quiet, deep, and sometimes strange, but that is what I liked about them.

At first, I was not sure what to expect. I had heard that Murakami’s writing is different, and now I understand why people say that. His stories are simple on the surface, but they make you feel something inside. I felt a little empty after finishing each story, but that feeling stayed with me. It made me think about loneliness, love, and how people hide their true feelings.

One story that touched me a lot was “Drive My Car.” It is about a man who talks to his female driver, and through small conversations, we learn about his past, his wife, and the silence between them. There is nothing dramatic in the story, but it is powerful in a quiet way. I liked how the characters did not say everything directly, but their pain was clear.

Another story I liked was “Scheherazade.” It felt like a dream. The woman in the story tells stories after they sleep together, and the man listens as if he is under a spell. Her stories were strange, but they made me think about how everyone has a hidden past. Murakami writes these magical things as if they are normal, and that’s something I enjoy.

Murakami’s writing style is calm. He does not try to shock the reader. He writes about very normal things like drinking coffee, watching the rain, or driving a car. But while reading, I felt that something deeper was going on. Even if the characters are doing simple things, they are feeling something very heavy inside. That mix of daily life and deep emotion is what makes the book special.

There were moments when I felt confused. Some stories didn’t have a clear ending, and some characters stayed like a mystery. But I think that’s okay because life is also like that. Not everything has a full stop. Some people leave, some questions stay unanswered, and some feelings don’t go away.

I also liked how Murakami does not try too hard to explain everything. He just lets the story flow. I think he trusts the reader to feel what they need to feel. And maybe that is why I connected with the book. It did not push me. It just walked beside me and whispered quietly.

The title Men Without Women is very fitting. Each man in these stories is trying to deal with the absence of a woman some through memory, some through silence, and some through strange dreams. It made me think about how much we depend on others to feel whole, and how hard it is to stay strong when someone we love disappears.

Would I recommend this book? Yes, but not to everyone. If you want a fast story or something with action, this is not that kind of book. But if you like stories that are slow, thoughtful, and full of quiet sadness, then you should read it. It’s not a book to finish in one sitting. It’s a book to read slowly, maybe one story a day, and think about afterward.

Men Without Women made me feel calm, sad, and thoughtful at the same time. It’s not perfect, and it doesn’t try to be. But it has a soul. And sometimes, that’s more than enough. 

Thankful to you for always being faithful reader and reading it till the end. 

Annihilation of Caste by Dr.B R Ambedkar

Reading Annihilation of Caste by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar felt like reading a powerful thesis full of arguments, logic, historical evidence, and bold truth-telling. It’s not a light read or a dramatic story, but a deeply academic, political, and philosophical text. The book is written in formal language and resembles a research paper that sets out to prove a central argument: that the caste system must be completely destroyed not reformed, not improved, but annihilated.

Originally written as a speech for the Jat-Pat Todak Mandal (a reformist Hindu group), Ambedkar was asked to remove some of the more radical parts of his speech. He refused. Instead, he published it himself in 1936. And I’m so glad he did. Reading it today, nearly 90 years later, the words still sting, disturb, and provoke thought.

Right from the beginning, Ambedkar is clear in his purpose. He does not soften his tone to please anyone. He criticizes the Hindu scriptures like the Manusmriti and Shastras, calling them tools of oppression. For someone like me, who grew up hearing the greatness of our ancient texts, it was shocking at first. But Ambedkar provides solid proof quoting directly from texts, giving examples, and connecting the dots. He writes like a scholar, but also like someone who has lived the pain of caste discrimination.

The book has the sharpness of an academic thesis. Each section builds on the previous one. Ambedkar first explains why reform from within Hinduism is not possible. Then, he attacks the idea that caste can be separated from Hindu religion. He makes a powerful point: caste is not just a social problem; it is a religious one. Religion has given it sacred approval. That’s why reformers like Gandhi, who tried to keep Hinduism and remove caste, failed to understand the root of the problem.

Ambedkar even criticizes Gandhi directly, and this was another surprise for me. In school, we often see Gandhi as the hero of India’s freedom and equality. But Ambedkar exposes how Gandhi’s words and actions often supported the caste system indirectly. For instance, Gandhi believed in the varna system and did not fully support inter-caste marriage or dining. Ambedkar, on the other hand, believed that without breaking these boundaries, real equality is impossible. He writes with fearless honesty, not to attack individuals, but to uncover the truth.

What I found most impressive was Ambedkar’s clarity of thought. His arguments are not emotional; they are rational. He writes like a lawyer and a historian, backing every claim with a reference or a counter-example. He even anticipates what critics will say and responds to those counter-arguments. This made the book feel like a classroom lecture or a debate, where logic wins over blind belief.

One powerful part of the text is when Ambedkar says: “Caste has killed public spirit. Caste has destroyed the sense of public charity. Caste has made public opinion impossible.” This struck me hard. We often talk about unity, nation-building, and democracy. But how can a society be united when it is divided by birth into higher and lower ranks? Ambedkar shows how caste does not only harm the so-called lower castes, but the whole society. It stops progress, creativity, and social justice.

Reading this text in today’s time made me realize how much of what Ambedkar wrote still holds true. We may have laws against caste discrimination, but caste-based violence, untouchability in practice, and social exclusion still continue in many parts of India. This book is not just a historic document; it’s a mirror to our present.

Stylistically, the book is heavy. It does not try to entertain. It expects the reader to think deeply. For students of political science, sociology, history, or literature, it offers rich material. At times, it feels like reading a journal article, with a strong thesis statement, evidence, analysis, and conclusion. But for someone interested in understanding India’s social system and the philosophy of resistance, it is a must-read.

What I appreciated most is that Ambedkar does not end with only criticism. He offers solutions. He talks about the need for equality, the value of liberty and fraternity, and the need for rational thought. His vision is not just to destroy caste, but to build a better society based on justice, dignity, and mutual respect.

To conclude, Annihilation of Caste is not a book you read and forget. It stays with you. It disturbs your comfort, shakes your beliefs, and forces you to look at society with fresh eyes. It reminded me that real change is not possible without radical thinking. Ambedkar was not just a reformer, but a revolutionary thinker who believed in the power of knowledge. This book, with all its academic seriousness, is a reminder that resistance begins with understanding and understanding begins with reading.

Thank you. Untill next review have a good time.

Certificate Course on Greek Mythology and Contemporary Literature

From 29 May to 11 June 2025, I had the enriching opportunity to participate in a deeply insightful online certificate course titled “Mythological Paradigms: Greek Mythology and its Relevance in Contemporary Literature.” Organized by Gokul Global University, Gujarat, in collaboration with the Nucleus of Learning and Development, and coordinated by Mr. Manoj Patel, the course brought together classical mythology and modern literary thought in innovative ways. Expertly conducted by Dr. Vanya Srivastava, Assistant Professor at Integral University, Lucknow, each session explored a new dimension of Greek mythology and how its narratives still reverberate through contemporary storytelling.

Here is a breakdown of the central themes explored each day:

Day 1: Foundations of Greek Mythology

Theme: Introduction to the Greek Pantheon and Mythological Cycles

The course began by establishing the essential framework of Greek mythology—its pantheon of gods, the cosmogony (origin of the universe), and key mythological cycles. This day was dedicated to identifying the structural backbone of myth-making in ancient Greece. The activity involved mapping gods and goddesses, their roles, and recognizing their enduring presence in contemporary culture (e.g., in branding, film, or symbolic representation).

Day 2: Heroes and Heroic Journeys

Theme: Archetypal Heroes and Joseph Campbell’s Monomyth

The second session examined the archetypes of classical heroes like Hercules, Perseus, and Theseus, comparing them with Campbell’s concept of the “Hero’s Journey.” The key insight was the cyclical pattern of departure, initiation, and return that links mythological heroes to modern figures like Superman or Harry Potter. The comparative analysis bridged ancient myth and modern superhero narratives.

Day 3: The Trojan War in Ancient and Modern Literature

Theme: Epic Conflict and Its Literary Legacy

This session explored the enduring legacy of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, particularly how the Trojan War serves as a template for both historical and psychological storytelling. Passages from the Iliad were juxtaposed with excerpts from modern war literature, highlighting themes of honor, sacrifice, and futility. It demonstrated how mythological conflict mirrors real human struggles.

Day 4: Tragic Dimensions – Greek Drama and Modern Theatre

Theme: Tragedy as a Universal Mode of Expression

Focusing on Greek tragedians such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides, this day highlighted the principles of catharsis, hamartia, and fate. By analyzing scenes from modern plays inspired by myth (e.g., Jean Anouilh’s Antigone), we traced how classical tragedy continues to influence contemporary dramaturgy and political commentary.

Day 5: Divine Feminine – Goddesses and Women in Myth

Theme: Feminine Power, Archetypes, and Reinterpretation

This session was a deep dive into the representations of goddesses such as Athena, Artemis, Aphrodite, and Persephone. It unpacked how female figures embody both creative and destructive powers. A feminist lens was applied to reinterpret myths, revealing how contemporary writers reclaim these stories to critique patriarchy and explore gender identity.

Day 6: Mythological Underworlds and Psychological Depths

Theme: Afterlife and Inner Consciousness

The Greek underworld, particularly as envisioned by Hades, Persephone, and Orpheus, was explored in connection with modern psychological theory (Freud, Jung). The session focused on death, dreams, and transformation, showing how mythological descent into the underworld parallels journeys into the unconscious mind, grief, and personal change.

Day 7: Transformation Tales – Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Beyond

Theme: Change as the Essence of Myth

Inspired by Ovid’s Metamorphoses, this session highlighted transformation not just as physical change but as metaphor for emotional, social, and identity shifts. Participants were encouraged to write their own short metamorphosis narratives, blending mythic themes with personal or political commentary.

Day 8: Mythological Retelling as Cultural Critique

Theme: Rewriting Myth to Challenge Power Structures

This powerful session focused on contemporary novels that retell Greek myths to critique social, political, or gender norms. Texts such as Madeline Miller’s Circe and Pat Barker’s The Silence of the Girls were discussed to explore how retellings give voice to marginalized characters. Myth here becomes a site of resistance and revision.

Day 9: Myths in Popular Culture and Media

Theme: From Olympus to Hollywood

The ninth session traced how Greek myths infiltrate popular media—films, TV shows, graphic novels, and digital content. From Wonder Woman to Percy Jackson, mythological structures and figures continue to shape narratives in subtle and explicit ways. The activity involved identifying mythic elements in visual media and analyzing their significance.

Day 10: The Enduring Power of Myth

Theme: Why Myths Still Matter

The concluding session tied everything together, reflecting on the universal and timeless appeal of myth. Participants presented their understanding of contemporary texts through a mythological lens. This day celebrated the resilience and adaptability of myth, reminding us that these ancient stories continue to help us make sense of modern existence.

Key Takeaways from the Course:

Classical myths are not relics—they are living, evolving templates for storytelling.

Mythological frameworks enhance literary analysis and creative writing alike.

Archetypes and themes like the hero's journey, metamorphosis, and the divine feminine remain central in literature and media.

Modern literature often reclaims and critiques mythology to address contemporary issues such as war, gender, trauma, and identity.

Participating in this course not only deepened my understanding of Greek mythology but also empowered me to look at literature—and the world—through a richer, more symbolic lens.

Thank you.

Drupadi by Pratibha Ray

 

Hello!

I’m here again with a book review this time from my favourite genre: mythology. And it’s about one of my most favourite characters from the Mahabharata Draupadi.

I have already read Draupadi by Kajal Oza Vaidya, The Palace of Illusions by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, and Krushnayan by Kajal Oza Vaidya. These books had a deep impact on my imagination and consciousness. So naturally, when I picked up Yajnaseni The Story of Draupadi by Pratibha Ray, translated from Odia by Varsha Pathak, I wondered: What new could this book offer me? After all, I already knew the story.

But as Aristotle said, it’s not the story that makes a work great, but how it is structured and that’s exactly what works here. At first, I found the initial 80 pages quite similar to the other books I’ve read. I almost thought of putting it aside. But then came the twist.

Unlike the others, Yajnaseni goes deeper into Draupadi’s (Krushna) inner world especially her psychological and emotional sides. Her bodily desires, her unconscious longings, her love, attraction, anger, guilt, and strength everything is boldly explored. This Draupadi is not just a queen or wife but a thinking, feeling woman.

She openly says she loved Arjuna the most, still felt attracted to Karna, and had a platonic, spiritual bond with Krishna. Apart from these three, she was also a wife to the other four Pandavas but the emotional connection was very different with each.

The book also breaks the glorified image of Yudhishthir, the so-called Dharma Raja. Krishna openly criticizes him for being cold, indifferent, and passive. He never cared for Draupadi’s pain or emotions. On the other hand, Bhima is shown as hungry for food, power, and love but always present when Draupadi needed him. Arjuna, whom she loved deeply, is portrayed as distant and punishing, often ignoring her feelings. Nakul comes across as self-centred, and Sahadeva is the silent observer, speaking only when necessary.

Despite their flaws, Draupadi still manages to hold all five together, carrying the burden of their decisions and mistakes.

Another important point this book highlights is how male desires are considered above female desires. The men make decisions for themselves, often ignoring the impact those choices have on Draupadi. Yet she remains resilient and graceful.

Even though much of the book follows traditional storytelling, the bold inner voice of Draupadi brings a fresh, modern dimension. Her self-awareness, her emotional honesty, and her ability to question everything even the gods make this version memorable.

I loved the book and am still thinking about it. If you love mythology and especially stories that give voice to female characters, Yajnaseni is a must-read.

Thank you for staying with me till the end.

See you in my next review.

Till then, bye!