History, Growth and Role of Translation in India
Introduction
Translation has always played an important role in shaping Indian culture, literature, and intellectual history. India is a multilingual and multicultural country, and communication between different regions, languages, and traditions has always depended on translation. Unlike the Western idea of translation, which focuses heavily on fidelity and word-for-word equivalence, the Indian tradition viewed translation more as retelling, adaptation, and recreation. Over centuries, translation in India evolved through different historical phases—ancient, medieval, colonial, nationalist, and post-independence periods. Each phase contributed uniquely to Indian literature and cultural identity. This essay traces the development of translation in India from ancient times to the modern era, highlighting key changes, influences, and debates.
Ancient Indian Translation Tradition
In ancient India, translation was not seen as a strict linguistic activity but as a creative and interpretative act. The Sanskrit term for translation is anuvad, which means “to say after” or “to retell.” This itself shows that translation was understood as repetition with variation rather than exact copying.
Ancient Indian culture was largely oral, and texts were transmitted through memory, performance, and storytelling. Because of this, texts were fluid rather than fixed. Translators or retellers freely added, removed, or modified material according to cultural, religious, and regional needs. Fidelity to the original text was not the primary concern. Instead, the aim was to maintain the emotional and aesthetic impact of the text.
A major example of this tradition is the multiple retellings of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The first interlingual translation of the Ramayana was Paumachariya, a Jain version written by Vimal Suri in Prakrit in the 4th century AD. This version presented Ravana not as a demon and Hanuman not as a monkey, reflecting Jain ideology. Similarly, the Mahabharata was rewritten in almost every Indian language—by Pampa in Kannada, Ezhuthachchan in Malayalam, Sarala Das in Oriya, and Nannayya, Tikkana, and Yerrana in Telugu. These were not exact translations but creative rewritings.
Indian aesthetic theories such as rasa (emotional essence) and dhvani (suggestion) also shaped translation practices. Translators aimed to recreate the same rasa in the target language, even if the words and structure changed. Thus, Indian translation was more about cultural continuity and emotional equivalence than literal accuracy.
Middle Indian Translation (Medieval Period)
During the medieval period, the influence of Sanskrit declined, and new languages and cultures entered India due to invasions and political changes. Persian became the dominant language of administration and scholarship under the Mughal rulers. Translation during this period played a key role in cultural exchange and bilingualism.
The Mughal courts actively encouraged translation. Babur’s autobiography Baburnama was translated from Chagatay into Persian by Bairam Khan. Emperor Akbar commissioned translations of major Sanskrit texts into Persian, including the Mahabharata. Dara Shukoh, Akbar’s great-grandson, translated the Upanishads and Bhagavad-gita into Persian.
These translations had several important results. First, they made people bilingual or multilingual. Second, they led to the birth of new languages such as Urdu, formed through interaction between Persian and local languages. Third, new literary genres like ghazal, qasida, and masnavi entered Indian literature and were Indianised. Writers like Mirza Ghalib wrote in both Persian and Urdu, showing this cultural blend.
Translations in this period also helped Indian texts reach the West through Persian versions. Overall, translation helped shape India’s composite culture and strengthened its tradition of linguistic diversity.
Modern Translation (Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial Phase)
With the arrival of the British, English gradually replaced Sanskrit and Persian as the dominant language. The British aimed not only to rule India politically but also to colonize it intellectually. They tried to establish the superiority of English language and literature over Indian languages.
However, for administrative purposes, the British also needed to understand Indian languages and culture. This led to a reverse flow of translation—from Indian languages into English. Ancient Sanskrit texts were translated, as they were seen as representing India’s “classical” past. Sir William Jones translated Abhijnanasakuntalam in 1789, and Charles Wilkins translated the Bhagavad-gita in 1784. These translations had official support and were meant to help the British govern India better.
At the same time, European texts were translated into Indian languages. Many English novels of the 18th and 19th centuries entered Indian languages through translation, shaping Indian literary forms.
Translation in the Colonial Era
After the First War of Indian Independence in 1857, the British Crown took direct control of India. English became the official language of administration and education. Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education promoted the creation of a class of Indians who were “Indian in blood but English in taste.”
One of the most significant translation activities during this period was the translation of the Bible into Indian languages. This was part of the British mission to spread Christianity. The Serampore Mission Press played a major role in this effort. Bible translations strengthened vernacular languages by introducing simple prose, new vocabulary, and printed texts.
However, Bible translation also introduced a new concept of translation—word-for-word accuracy and fidelity to the original. Since the Bible was considered the word of God, translators believed it must be translated without distortion. This was a major shift from the Indian tradition of free adaptation.
This obsession with fidelity and equivalence was later critiqued by scholars like G. N. Devy, who argued that it was rooted in Western metaphysical ideas. According to Indian philosophical concepts like sphota, meaning is not fixed but contextual. Therefore, translation can never truly “carry across” meaning—it can only interpret and retell.
Rise of Nationalism and Translation as Resistance
Alongside colonial rule, Indian nationalism was rising. Translation became a powerful tool for social reform and political resistance. Translations were used to spread nationalist ideas and expose colonial exploitation.
A famous example is Dinbandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan, which depicted the suffering of indigo farmers in Bengal. Its English translation by Rev. James Long led to the banning of the play and Long’s prosecution. This shows how translation could threaten colonial authority.
Translation also led to the rise of the Indian novel, a genre inspired by English literature but adapted to Indian realities. Early Indian novels addressed social evils, women’s issues, and national identity. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s Anandamath, which included Vande Mataram, was translated into many Indian languages and inspired nationalists across India.
Many Indian translators deliberately adapted foreign texts to suit Indian needs. Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi translated Victor Hugo’s Ninety-three as Balidaan to inspire patriotism. Premchand translated works of Anatole France for ideological reasons. These translations were more like adaptations and played a silent but powerful role in strengthening nationalism.
Translation After Independence (Modern India)
After independence, the focus of translation changed again. The new nation needed unity amid linguistic and cultural diversity. Translation now had the responsibility of promoting national integration.
Institutions like the Sahitya Akademi and National Book Trust were established to encourage translations between Indian languages and into English. Their work helped create the idea of a unified Indian literature written in many languages.
Individual translators also played an important role. A. K. Ramanujan introduced ancient Tamil and Kannada literature to the world through sensitive translations and detailed notes. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak brought Mahasweta Devi’s writings to international readers. These translations helped promote Indian literature globally.
Issues in Contemporary Indian Translation
Despite a strong translation tradition, several issues remain. Most Indian texts are translated into English rather than other Indian languages, reflecting unequal power relations. English provides wider visibility and market value, but this often marginalizes regional languages.
Another issue is the debate over fidelity versus recreation. Indian tradition favours recreating rasa and cultural meaning rather than literal accuracy. Modern translators, however, often face pressure to produce fluent, “invisible” translations, sometimes at the cost of the original text.
Many translations between Indian languages are now mediated through English, making them closer to retellings than direct translations. This continues the ancient Indian practice but also raises questions about authenticity and representation.
Conclusion
The history of translation in India shows a rich and complex tradition shaped by philosophy, culture, politics, and power. From ancient retellings of epics to colonial Bible translations and nationalist adaptations, translation has never been a neutral act in India. It has been a tool of cultural exchange, domination, resistance, and unity.
Indian translation theory, rooted in concepts like anuvad, rasa, and dhvani, challenges Western ideas of fidelity and equivalence. Even today, Indian translators continue to balance creativity and responsibility, tradition and modernity. In a multilingual country like India, translation remains essential—not only for communication but for preserving cultural diversity and strengthening national identity.
Works Cited :
Anisha, Dr. “Translation in India: Then and Now.” Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 2018.
Devy, G. N. In Another Tongue: Essays on Indian English Literature. Macmillan, 1993.
Mukherjee, Sujit. Translation as Discovery. Orient Longman, 2006.
Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies. Routledge, 2002.
Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford University Press, 1974.
Gopinathan, G. “Translation, Transcreation and Culture.”